Questions: In the southern world of racial apartheid I grew up in, no racialized class division was as intense or as fraught with bitter conflict as the one between poor whites and black folks. All black people knew that white skin gave any southern "cracker or peckerwood" (ethnic slurs reserved for the white poor) more power and privilege than even the wealthiest of black folks. However, these slurs were not the product of black vernacular slang, they were the terms white folks with class privilege invented to separate themselves from what they called poor "white trash." On the surface, at least, it made the lives of racist poor white people better to have a group they could lord it over, and the only group they could lord it over were black people. Assailed and assaulted by privileged white folks, they transferred their rage and class hatred onto the bodies of black people. Unlike the stereotypes projected by the dominant culture about poor black folks, class stereotypes claimed poor whites were supposedly easily spotted by skin ailments, bad dental hygiene, and hair texture. All these things are affected by diet. While poor southern black folks often had no money, they usually had homegrown food to eat. Poor whites often suffered from malnutrition. Living under racial apartheid, black children learned to fear poor whites more than other whites simply because they were known to express their racism by cruel and brutal acts of violence. And even when white folks with class privilege condemned this violence, they could never openly oppose it, for to do so they would have had to take the word of black folks over those of white folks, thus being disloyal to white supremacy. A white person of privilege opposing violence against blacks perpetuated by poor whites might easily ruin their reputation and risk being seen as a "nigger lover." When I was a small child we lived in the hills without neighbors nearby. Our closest neighbors were "white trash," as distinct from poor whites. White trash were different because they flaunted their poverty, reveled in it, and were not ashamed. Poor whites, like poor blacks, were committed to trying to find work and lay claim to respectability-they were law abiding and patriotic. White trash saw themselves as above the law and as a consequence they were dangerous. White trash were folks who, as our neighbors were fond of saying, "did not give a good goddamn." They were not afraid to take the Lord's name in vain. Most poor white folks did not want to live anywhere near black folks. White trash lived anywhere. . . .

In the excerpt from "White Poverty: The Politics of Invisibility" by bell hooks, the author delves into the complex dynamics of race and class in the southern United States during the era of racial apartheid. The text highlights the intense and bitter conflict between poor whites and black people, emphasizing the power and privilege that even the poorest whites held over black individuals due to their skin color.

1. Racialized Class Division: The author notes that the division between poor whites and black people was the most intense and fraught with conflict. Despite their economic status, poor whites had more power and privilege than even the wealthiest black individuals due to their race.

2. Ethnic Slurs and Class Distinctions: Terms like "cracker" and "peckerwood" were used by privileged whites to distinguish themselves from poor whites, who were often referred to as "white trash." These slurs were not part of black vernacular but were created by privileged whites to maintain class distinctions.

3. Stereotypes and Malnutrition: The dominant culture projected stereotypes about poor whites, associating them with skin ailments, bad dental hygiene, and poor hair texture, all of which were linked to malnutrition. In contrast, poor black people often had access to homegrown food, which helped mitigate some of these issues.

4. Violence and Racism: Poor whites were known for their violent and brutal acts of racism against black people. Even though privileged whites might condemn this violence, they rarely opposed it openly due to the risk of being seen as disloyal to white supremacy.

5. White Trash vs. Poor Whites: The author distinguishes between "white trash" and poor whites. White trash flaunted their poverty and were seen as lawless and dangerous, while poor whites sought respectability and were law-abiding and patriotic.

• Historical Context: The text is set in the southern United States during the era of racial apartheid, a time when segregation and discrimination against black people were legally enforced.
• Stereotypes and Malnutrition: The reference to poor whites suffering from malnutrition due to a lack of access to nutritious food highlights the intersection of race and class in determining health outcomes.
• Violence and Racism: The mention of poor whites expressing their racism through violence underscores the systemic nature of racism and how it was perpetuated by different social classes.

bell hooks' analysis in this excerpt provides a nuanced understanding of the intersection of race and class in the southern United States. By highlighting the distinctions between poor whites and "white trash," as well as the power dynamics at play, the author sheds light on the complexities of racial and class-based oppression. This text serves as a powerful reminder of the ways in which systemic racism and classism are intertwined and perpetuated within society.