Questions: 3. There are six stages of moral development, please describe stage 5 and stage 6 briefly. What are there major ethics referents and basis of ethics reasoning? 4. There are four methods of ethical reasoning, including virtues, utilitarian, rights, and justice. Both utilitarian and justice needs to measure benefits and costs. But the critical determining factor of utilitarian and justice is different. Please explain why.

The six stages of moral development were proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, a psychologist who expanded on Jean Piaget's work on moral reasoning. These stages are part of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which is divided into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Stage 5 and Stage 6 fall under the post-conventional level.

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

• Description: At this stage, individuals understand that laws and rules are social contracts that should be respected to maintain order and protect individual rights. However, they also recognize that these laws can be changed if they do not serve the greater good or if they infringe on fundamental human rights.
• Major Ethics Referents: The focus is on the welfare of the community and the idea that laws should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
• Basis of Ethics Reasoning: Ethical reasoning is based on the understanding that laws are flexible instruments for achieving social justice and that individuals have a responsibility to work towards societal improvement.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

• Description: At this stage, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Individuals follow these principles even if they conflict with laws and rules. The principles are self-chosen and involve concepts such as justice, dignity, and equality.
• Major Ethics Referents: The focus is on universal principles of justice and human rights that transcend specific laws and social agreements.
• Basis of Ethics Reasoning: Ethical reasoning is guided by internalized principles of justice and equality, which are considered more important than specific laws or social contracts.

The four methods of ethical reasoning include virtues, utilitarianism, rights, and justice. Both utilitarianism and justice involve measuring benefits and costs, but they differ in their critical determining factors.

Utilitarianism

• Explanation: Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that suggests that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility. The critical determining factor in utilitarianism is the outcome or consequence of an action. It focuses on the greatest good for the greatest number, weighing the total benefits against the total costs.
• Example: A policy decision that benefits the majority of people, even if it disadvantages a minority, might be justified under utilitarian reasoning.

Justice

• Explanation: Justice, as an ethical principle, is concerned with fairness and the equitable distribution of benefits and burdens. The critical determining factor in justice is the fairness of the process and the distribution of outcomes. It emphasizes equal treatment and the protection of individual rights.
• Example: A decision that ensures fair treatment and equal opportunities for all individuals, regardless of the overall utility, would be justified under justice reasoning.

In summary, while both utilitarianism and justice involve evaluating benefits and costs, utilitarianism focuses on the overall outcome and maximizing utility, whereas justice emphasizes fairness and equitable treatment.